🚰 No safe level exists

Lead in Drinking Water Map

There is no safe level of lead in drinking water. Lead causes permanent neurological damage in children at any concentration. An estimated 9.2 million lead service lines still connect US homes to water mains — and millions of Americans don't know their pipes are made of lead.

371

Cities above lead action level

15,554

Cities with LCR testing data

9.2M

Lead service lines remaining in US

10 ppb

EPA action level (LCRI 2024)

0 ppb361015+ No data

Average 90th percentile lead (ppb) — EPA action level is 10 ppb, but no level is safe

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The CDC has removed its "safe" blood lead reference value. No amount of lead is considered safe for children. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends using lead-certified filters whenever tap water lead levels exceed 1 ppb — ten times stricter than the EPA action level.

Lead health effects at specific concentrations

There is no safe level of lead in drinking water. The CDC's "reference value" for children's blood lead has been repeatedly lowered as science reveals harm at ever-smaller doses. This is what research documents at specific tap water concentrations.

0 ppb

EPA goal (MCLG)

The maximum contaminant level goal — the concentration at which EPA believes no health risk exists. Set at zero because no safe level has been identified. In practice, achieving zero is impossible in systems with lead pipes.

1 ppb

AAP recommended filter threshold

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends using a lead-certified filter whenever tap water exceeds 1 ppb. Studies document measurable IQ reduction and behavioral problems in children at blood lead levels associated with this tap water concentration.

5 ppb

LCRI 2024 "trigger level"

The Lead and Copper Rule Improvements (2024) requires utilities to begin early action planning when the 90th percentile tap result exceeds 5 ppb, even if still below the 10 ppb action level. This triggers accelerated pipe inventory and replacement planning.

10 ppb

Current EPA action level (2024 LCRI)

The new action level under the 2024 LCRI — reduced from 15 ppb where it had been since 1991. At this level, utilities must accelerate lead service line replacement and enhance corrosion control treatment. Affects an estimated 9–12 million service lines nationally.

15 ppb

Old EPA action level (1991–2024)

The action level used for 33 years before the 2024 LCRI — widely criticized as far too permissive. A 2019 Lancet study found that reducing US blood lead levels to near zero could prevent over 400,000 cardiovascular deaths per year, most attributable to lead that was "compliant" under the old 15 ppb standard.

55 ppb

Newark, NJ 90th percentile peak (2018)

Newark's 90th percentile result in 2017–18, nearly 4× the action level. City distributed bottled water to 40,000 households and launched a $120M+ lead service line replacement program. By 2021, all 23,000 lead service lines had been replaced.

13,200 ppb

Flint, MI peak sample (2015)

The highest documented tap water lead concentration in a major US city — 880× the current action level. Caused by switching to corrosive river water without anti-corrosion treatment. Approximately 100,000 residents were exposed, including thousands of children. A $97M federal replacement program replaced 95%+ of lead service lines by 2024.

States ranked by average lead levels

Ranked by average 90th percentile lead level (ppb) across all tested water systems in each state. The 90th percentile means 90% of tap water samples were at or below this concentration — it's the standard measure used by the EPA to evaluate system-wide lead control.

#	State	Avg lead (ppb)	Max lead (ppb)	Cities above action level	Cities tested
1	New Hampshire	28.2	280.0	58	102
2	Pennsylvania	21.3	1800.0	131	553
3	New York	6.5	2900.0	9	854
4	Indiana	5.6	1400.0	7	414
5	Arkansas	5.3	370.0	16	333
6	Wyoming	3.9	106.0	1	65
7	Utah	3.2	49.0	4	176
8	New Jersey	3.0	13.1	0	435
9	Massachusetts	2.9	22.5	8	280
10	Vermont	2.9	47.6	2	104
11	Alaska	2.8	21.0	1	79
12	North Dakota	2.8	66.0	2	103
13	Georgia	2.7	165.0	9	378
14	Nebraska	2.7	35.2	4	200
15	Delaware	2.6	23.0	1	43
16	Illinois	2.6	95.0	24	891
17	Michigan	2.6	71.0	13	509
18	Oregon	2.6	44.2	6	213
19	Rhode Island	2.6	18.8	1	35
20	Wisconsin	2.6	37.0	4	446

Lead in drinking water: what you need to know

Where lead comes from

Lead almost never comes from the original water source — it leaches into water as it travels through lead service lines and household plumbing. The 9.2 million lead service lines still in use were installed primarily before 1986, when lead pipes were standard practice. Homes built before 1986 are most at risk. Lead solder (used until 1986), brass fixtures, and older faucets also contribute. Even "lead-free" brass fittings sold before 2014 could contain up to 8% lead by weight.

Health effects at specific levels

The CDC states no blood lead level is safe for children. Studies document IQ reduction, attention deficits, and behavioral problems at blood lead levels once considered "safe." In adults, lead exposure at drinking water concentrations linked to cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and reproductive harm. A 2019 Lancet study found that reducing US blood lead levels to near zero could prevent over 400,000 cardiovascular deaths per year. Pregnant women face heightened risk as maternal bone lead — accumulated over a lifetime — mobilizes into the bloodstream and crosses to the fetus.

The Flint crisis and its aftermath

Flint, Michigan's 2014–2015 lead contamination crisis — caused by switching to corrosive river water without proper treatment — exposed tens of thousands of residents, including children, to lead levels as high as 13,200 ppb. The crisis revealed a systemic failure in lead monitoring and public notification requirements. It directly drove the 2021 Lead and Copper Rule Revisions and accelerated federal funding for lead pipe replacement. By 2024, Flint had replaced over 95% of its lead service lines through a $97M effort.

The Lead and Copper Rule Improvements (2024)

The LCRI, finalized October 2024, is the most significant overhaul of lead regulations since 1991. Key changes: the action level drops from 15 ppb to 10 ppb; a trigger level of 5 ppb requires early action; all lead service lines must be replaced within 10 years regardless of testing results; sampling must occur at highest-risk taps (first-draw from lead lines); and water systems must create and publicly post lead service line inventories. The EPA estimates 9–12 million service line replacements will be required.

Lead service line replacement funding

The 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (Bipartisan Infrastructure Law) allocated $15 billion specifically for lead service line replacement — the largest federal investment in drinking water infrastructure in US history. An additional $11.7 billion in general drinking water funding can also be used for lead. Despite this funding, at current replacement rates of ~300,000 lines per year, replacing all 9.2 million lines would still take 30+ years without acceleration.

How to protect your household

Run your cold tap for 30 seconds to 2 minutes before drinking — especially after water has sat in pipes overnight. Use only cold water for cooking and baby formula; hot water accelerates lead dissolution. Get your water tested: contact your utility or a certified lab. Use an NSF 53-certified filter for lead removal — look for certification specifically listing lead at pH 6.5 and 8.5. Reverse osmosis systems are highly effective (95–99% removal). Replace old faucets and fixtures in homes built before 1986.

Lead regulation in the US: a 50-year timeline

Lead has been known as a neurotoxin since antiquity. Yet it took decades of crises, lawsuits, and growing scientific evidence to drive meaningful regulatory action in US drinking water.

1974 Safe Drinking Water Act passed — no lead limits yet

Congress passes the SDWA establishing federal authority over drinking water safety. Lead is not yet specifically regulated — most attention focuses on bacterial contamination. Lead pipes and solder are still standard practice in home construction.

1986 SDWA amendments ban lead pipes and solder in new construction

Congress amends the SDWA to ban lead pipes, solder, and flux in new plumbing — but does nothing to require removal of existing lead infrastructure. Homes built before 1986 retain lead service lines, lead solder joints, and brass fittings containing up to 8% lead by weight.

1991 Lead and Copper Rule establishes 15 ppb action level

EPA sets the 90th percentile action level at 15 ppb for lead and 1.3 mg/L for copper — the standards that would remain in place for 33 years. Critics argue 15 ppb is far too high given the science on child neurodevelopment, but the rule is not revisited meaningfully until Flint.

2014–2015 Flint, Michigan crisis — 13,200 ppb peak

Flint switches its water source to the corrosive Flint River without applying required anti-corrosion treatment, leaching lead from aging pipes into the drinking water supply. Levels as high as 13,200 ppb are detected. State and federal officials initially dismiss resident concerns. The crisis exposes systematic failures in monitoring, oversight, and public notification — and catalyzes federal action.

2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law — $15B for lead pipe replacement

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act allocates $15 billion specifically for lead service line replacement — the largest federal investment in drinking water infrastructure in US history. An additional $11.7 billion in general drinking water funding can also be used for lead. Despite this, at 300,000 replacements per year, eliminating all 9.2 million lead lines would take 30+ years.

Oct 2024 LCRI finalized — 10 ppb action level, 10-year replacement mandate

The Lead and Copper Rule Improvements (LCRI) — the most significant overhaul since 1991 — reduce the action level from 15 ppb to 10 ppb, establish a new trigger level at 5 ppb, and mandate replacement of all lead service lines within 10 years regardless of testing results. Systems must publish lead service line inventories and test at highest-risk taps. An estimated 9–12 million service line replacements will be required under this rule.

Which filters remove lead from drinking water?

Lead is a metal and cannot be removed by boiling. Only certified physical filtration removes lead from drinking water. Look for NSF/ANSI 53 certification specifically listing lead removal at pH 6.5 and 8.5.

Filter type	Lead removal	Certified standard	Best for	Typical cost
Reverse osmosis (RO) — under-sink	95–99%	NSF/ANSI 58	Highest lead levels; comprehensive contaminant removal	$150–$600
Activated carbon block — under-sink	95–99%	NSF/ANSI 53	Moderate lead levels; good flow rate	$75–$300
Pitcher filter (NSF 53 certified)	85–95%	NSF/ANSI 53	Renters; budget option — check certification label specifically	$30–$60 + $10–20/replacement
Faucet-mount filter (NSF 53)	85–95%	NSF/ANSI 53	Convenience; moderate lead levels	$25–$60 + replacements
Standard refrigerator filter	Not reliable	Not NSF 53 for lead	Not recommended for lead	$30–$60 replacement
Boiling water	Concentrates lead	N/A	Not suitable — increases concentration	—

Notable lead contamination cases

Flint, MI

Up to 13,200 ppb detected in 2015. Corrosive river water without anti-corrosion treatment leached lead from aging pipes. ~100,000 residents exposed. $97M federal replacement program launched.

Newark, NJ

Average 90th percentile of 55 ppb in 2017–18, nearly 4× the EPA action level. City distributed bottled water and filters to 40,000 households. $120M+ spent replacing 23,000 lead service lines by 2021.

Pittsburgh, PA

Widespread exceedances in 2016–17 linked to a change in corrosion inhibitor chemicals. Multiple schools and daycares found above 15 ppb. PA's 2023 lead pipe inventory identified 27,000+ lead lines statewide.

Jackson, MS

Chronic infrastructure failures including lead exceedances and loss of water pressure affected 180,000 residents. Federal judge appointed an independent water system manager in 2022. Ongoing remediation.

Benton Harbor, MI

Lead levels consistently above action level 2018–2021. Michigan governor declared a public health emergency in 2021, distributed bottled water, and launched full lead pipe replacement — all 6,000 lines replaced by 2022.

New Hampshire (statewide)

Highest average 90th percentile lead levels in our data, driven by the state's high density of small, aging water systems. NH has over 100 water systems exceeding the 10 ppb action level — the most per capita in the nation.

Frequently asked questions

How do I know if I have a lead service line?

The EPA's 2024 LCRI requires all water utilities to publish lead service line inventories by 2024. Contact your water utility and ask for the inventory or check their website. You can also check the pipe connecting your home to the street: lead pipes are dull gray and soft enough to scratch with a key, revealing shiny silver metal underneath. Galvanized steel pipes (which can harbor lead contamination) are magnetic. If unsure, hire a licensed plumber to inspect or use a home lead testing kit on your water.

If my city's water tests below 10 ppb, is it safe?

Not necessarily. The 90th percentile test result is an average across many tap samples — your individual home could have higher levels, especially if you have lead service lines, old interior plumbing, or lead-containing fixtures. The CDC and AAP recommend testing your specific tap water if you have children under 6 or are pregnant, even if your utility reports compliant results. The safest approach is to use a certified lead-removing filter regardless of utility test results.

Does boiling water remove lead?

No — boiling water does not remove lead and can actually increase lead concentration by reducing water volume through evaporation. Lead is a metal, not a biological contaminant, so heat has no effect on it. Only physical filtration (activated carbon certified for lead, reverse osmosis) or avoiding the contaminated water source reduces lead exposure.

Is bottled water always lead-free?

Bottled water is regulated by the FDA (not EPA) and has an MCL of 5 ppb for lead — actually less stringent than the EPA's 10 ppb action level. However, most reputable bottled water brands test well below both limits. The bigger concern is plastic contamination and the environmental cost of single-use plastic. A certified point-of-use filter is more economical, environmentally sound, and just as protective.

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